Intertestamental Period: What Happened Between Malachi and Jesus

The New Testament book of Matthew opens a new period in the life of God’s people. Now Rome is the new world power and rules God’s people in the Promised Land. Before Roman’s rule, God’s people had witnessed the rise and fall of many foreign rulers, including the construction of a new Temple, often called the “Second Temple Judaism.” Between the period of the Second Temple (516 BC) and the destruction of Jerusalem in AD 70 introduced periods of political and religious changes and structures in the lives of God’s people.

The time between the Old Testament and the New Testament is often called the intertestamental period (approximately 433 BC to 5 BC). This intertestamental period covers approximately 400 years from the time of Nehemiah and Malachi to the birth of Jesus Christ. Some scholars call the intertestamental period the “silent” years. However, these years were anything but silent.

Intertestamental Books: During the intertestamental years, the Jewish writers wrote many books including the Apocrypha, the Dead Sea Scrolls, and the Septuagint. These books are a collection of Jewish writings from the period of the Second Temple Judaism – when the Jews returned from Babylonian captivity and built a new Temple. Most of the writings of the Apocrypha are included in the canon the Orthodox and Roman Catholic traditions as well as Eastern Christianity. Also, a group of Jews called the Essenes wrote documents often called the “Dead Sea Scrolls.” An Arab shepherd discovered these Jewish sacred writings in 1947 by chance in the hills overlooking the southwestern shore of the Dead Sea. The Dead Sea Scrolls contain parts of all the Old Testament books, except Esther as well as some parts of apocryphal and pseudepigraphical writings. Moreover, during this period, a Greek translation of the Pentateuch (first five books of the Holy Bible) was made in Egypt around 250 BC, and the rest of the Old Testament was translated in approximately 130 BC. The Greek translation of the Old Testament is called the Septuagint. The Septuagint quickly became the Bible of the Jews outside the Holy Land. Even more, the Septuagint became the Bible of the early church, frequently quoted by the New Testament writers.

Rise and Fall of Empires: In approximately 586 BC, the dominant world power was the Babylonians. God raised up the Babylonians to punish His people for their lack of faithfulness to Him and their continual wickedness (e.g., see 2 Kings 24:2; Habakkuk 1:6). King Nebuchadnezzar and the Babylonian army marched against Jerusalem in 586 BC and destroyed the first Temple, originally built by King Solomon (2 Kings 25:8-12; see also Jeremiah 52:12-16). In 586 BC, the Jews lost their land, the monarchy, the city of Jerusalem, and their Temple due to Babylonian invasion. The Jewish people lived under the direct control of foreign rulers, without a national identity. The majority of the Jewish people were scattered throughout the world. This scattering is often called the Diaspora or “Dispersion.” Around 538 BC, some faithful Jews returned to Jerusalem and began to rebuild the Temple – the Second Temple (see Ezra 2:1-2). The Second Temple was completed approximately 516 BC under the leadership of Zechariah, Haggai, Ezra, and Nehemiah.

Eventually, God raised up the Persians and the Persians defeated the Babylonians (see Daniel 5:30-31). The Persians became the dominant power at the end of the Old Testament history. In approximately 330 BC, the Greeks under Alexander the Great (356-323 BC) conquered the ancient world and supplanted the Persians. With this rule, the Greeks left a lasting intellectual and cultural mark on the world. In addition to military and political control, Alexander the Great wanted to spread the Greek (Hellenistic) culture and philosophy, including the Greek language around the world. Aristotle trained Alexander, and Alexander wanted to spread the Greek culture to all his conquered states, including the Holy Land. Alexander was committed to the creation of a world united by Greek language and culture. Most of the Holy Land countryside outside of Jerusalem adopted the Greek culture.

Alexander’s short life ended in 323 BC. Following Alexander’s death, his empire was divided among four of his generals. Alexander the Great died in 323 BC without legitimate heirs. From approximately 320 to 198 BC, the Egyptian Ptolemaic Empire controlled the Jewish people and their land. The Ptolemaic Empire was considerate to the Jewish religion. However in approximately 198 BC, the Seleucid (Syrian) Empire to the north of Palestine gained control over the Jewish land from the Ptolemaic Empire. Sadly, the Seleucid attempted to spread the Greek culture through the empire, and the Seleucid disallowed the Jewish people from practicing their traditional way of life, including their religion. The Seleucid’s King Antiochus IV Epiphanes turned the Jerusalem Temple into a pagan shrine, and Jewish persecution was widespread.

Then, God raised up Mattathias, an aged priest, along with his five sons – Judas, Jonathan, Simon, John, and Eleazar. Mattathias and his sons led a revolt against the Seleucids. This triggered the Maccabean revolt that resulted in the independence of God’s people. After Mattathias’ death, the leadership of the Jewish people fell to one of his sons, Judas (call “Maccabeus”). Judas and his successors eventually won independence. In 164 BC, the Jerusalem Temple cleansed, and the daily burnt offerings and other religious ceremonies resumed. This event is still celebrated by the Jews each December as Hanukkah, the “Feast of Lights.”

From 164 BC to 63 BC, the Maccabean controlled the Jewish people. Sadly, some of these Maccabean rulers became progressively dictatorial, corrupt, immoral, and even pagan. Internal strife led Jewish leadership to ask the Roman General Pompey to come and restore order. Pompey did so, but he also brought the Roman rule in the Jewish territory that began in 63 BC. When Pompey of Rome took control of Jerusalem, he entered the Jerusalem Temple and even the Most Holy Place. To the Jewish people, Pompey’s action was the ultimate insult and sacrilege. Hence, deep suspicion and ill will began growing between Rome and the Jewish people that lasted over a century even during the ministry of Jesus. The Romans ruled in the Jewish territory until the fourth century.

In 37 BC, Rome appointed Herod the Great to be “king” of all Palestine. Herod the Great was king when Jesus was born in approximately 5 BC. It was Herod the Great appointed by Rome that killed the Jewish boy babies in Bethlehem (see Matthew 2). Nevertheless, Herod the Great carried out great building projects including enlarging and reconstructing the Second Temple in Jerusalem. After Herod’s death in approximately 4 BC, Rome divided his kingdom amongst his three surviving sons – Herod Archelaus, Herod Antipas, and Herod Phillip II.

The Romans built on the Greeks’ intellectual and cultural marks this through political achievements. Paul and other travelers made good use of the vast system of Roman roads. “Roman Peace” (Pax Romana) brought a measure of security and stability to the empire. However, the Romans’ morals were wicked. The Roman religion included a pantheon of gods and goddess, such as Jupiter, Venus, and Mars (or their Greek counterparts Zeus, Aphrodite, and Ares) (e.g., see Acts 14:11-18; Acts 19:23-27). The ancient cities of Rome were filled with temples dedicated to these gods and goddess (e.g., see Acts 17:16-32). Even more, some Roman cities had household gods they worshiped. Furthermore, the Greek and Roman citizens elevated great conquerors such as Alexander the Great to the status of a god. Some Roman leaders such as Gaius, Caligula, Nero, and Domitian) were known to encourage their worship. Even worse, magic played a central role in the Roman daily life (e.g., see Acts 13:6; Acts 16:16-18; Acts 19:13-20).

Many people including the Jews were restless and yearned to be free from Roman rule. Many, like the prophetess Anna, were patiently “Waiting for the redemption of Jerusalem” (Luke 2:38). Many people, including the Jews, suffered under such wicked Roman leaders as Claudius (AD 41-54) and Nero (AD 54-68). This tension continued until the Jews rebelled against Rome. Eventually, the Jewish people revolted against the Romans AD 66. The Romans lead by Titus destroyed Jerusalem and the Second Temple in AD 70 as predicted by Jesus (e.g. see Matthew 24:1-2; Mark 13:1-4). After the Second Temple’s destruction, the only Jewish section that survived was Rabbinic Judaism. From the second century forward, Jerusalem was a Gentile city and Christianity became mainly a Gentile movement.

Although most people in ancient Rome worshiped multiple gods and goddess (syncretism), some were attracted to Judaism and Christianity because of their beliefs in the one true and living God. Through God’s outpouring of the Holy Spirit at Pentecost, Christianity grew increasingly popular in ancient Rome. Eventually, Christianity was accepted and declared a legitimate religion under Constantine in the fourth century and grew to become the dominant faith of people throughout the Roman Empire.

Religious Environment: By the mid-300s BC, the Hebrews had been back in their land and rebuilt the Jerusalem Temple – the Second Temple. Before the Babylonian exile in 586 BC, the Jewish religion had been largely Temple-centered and ceremonial. By the completion of the Second Temple around 516 BC, some Jews had decided their religion could survive without the Temple. From the last prophetic voices of Zechariah and Malachi of the Old Testament until the arrival of the angel announcing the births of Jesus and His relatively, John the Baptist, God’s prophets had been silent. The major religious leader was no longer only the priest but also the teacher-rabbi. This resulted in new and different forms of interpretation and the birth of traditions or additional laws, which supposedly expanded and clarified the written Torah. During the New Testament period, these extra rules were taught and passed on both orally and in writing, note the frequent mention of “scribes” in the New Testament (e.g., see Mark 7:1-23).

The Judaism of Jesus’ day was the result of changes that occurred during the intertestamental period. During the Babylonian exile, many of the Jewish people were cut-off from the Temple and dispersed around the world. Many Jewish people developed synagogues during the intertestamental period to maintain their close fellowship with God and study the Torah. Also, during this period arose numerous Jewish parties, denominations, or sects. The best known are the Sadducees, Pharisees, Zealots, and Essenes. The Pharisees were the most influential to the everyday people, and they operated most of the Jewish synagogues. The Sadducees came from aristocratic priestly families, including the high priest Caiaphas. The Sadducees were primarily wealthy, and they controlled the financial interests of the Temple. When Jesus disrupted the Sadducees’ financial interests in the Temple, the Sadducees arrested and condemned Jesus to death (e.g., see Mark 11:15-19; Mark 14:53-65).

When Jesus began to proclaim the Gospel, Sadducees, Essenes, and Pharisees were also laying claim to Israel’s heritage. The Essenes eventually dropped out of public life and became a network of close-knit communities and also authors of the Dead Sea Scrolls. For this reason, the New Testament never discusses the Essenes. The Sadducees and Pharisees continued to compete for control of the Second Temple, and these two groups are the most dominate in the New Testament (e.g., see Acts 5:17; Acts 15:5). However, the Pharisees continued to survive and eventually became the dominant group of the Jewish people and founders of Rabbinic Judaism. The Pharisees also had considerable influence over the local scribes, who would preach in the synagogue according to their interpretations (e.g., see John 9:22; John 12:42).

Final thoughts: God, not earthly rulers, had the ultimate authority over world politics and cultures. Although the ancient world may not have realized, the earth's most powerful kingdoms have always been under God's sovereign control (Proverbs 21:1; see also, e.g., Isaiah 10:5-8).

References:

The ESV Study Bible, English Standard Version (Wheaton, IL: Crossway Bibles, 2008).

The Holy Bible NIV 2011 (Grand Rapids, MI: Biblica, 2011).

Zondervan NIV Study Bible (Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 2008).

Loyd, Melton, Ph.D., Professor of New Testament (Due West Campus: Erskine Theological Seminary, 2013).